Background to the Rise of Democracy in Europe
Democracy can be defined as system of government by the
people and for the people. It can also be defined as a form of government in
which all people can choose their leaders and hold them accountable for their
policies and conduct in office.
Democracy entails the key elements of basic human rights,
free and fair elections and equality of all people before the law.https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/democracy
Original of Democracy in the World.
Democracy is said to be originated from two Greek words,
namely “Demos” which means rule of power or authority. Generally the term
democracy can simply mean the rule of people who are divided by their own
concern.
Historically Democracy was said to be practiced for the
first time in ancient Greek especially during the 300BC years ago which
basically was under direct democratic system. Due to the shortage of number of
Authors in Greek in which who ever in the state had a choice of providing a
suggestion so as to promote the social, economic and political matters of the
state. Later due to the increase of populations there was a need of indirect
democracy (Representatives).
Democracy spread to other ports of the world especially in England
and France. It was achieved through revolutions (17th C England and 18th
C-France). Later democracy spread to USA, the rise of democracy in America act
as the main bridge to the rise and spread of democracy in the world.
The principle that governed politics in Europe before the
rise of democracy
a. Absolutism
This was one of the main principles that governed politics
in Europe. Throughout Europe in the period before the French revolution of
1789, the government was in the hands of few individuals. The individuals had
absolute power and in most cases their positions were hereditary.
In France, the king was above the law and not controlled by
it. He had power to have an individual arrested and imprisoned during “the
king’s pleasure” through the famous “letter de cachet”.
b. Divine right of the king.
This was the belief that the power of monarchies was given
directly by God and thus monarchs were answerable only to God. Any opposition
to the king was an attack on God himself. Thiswas very true in Britain during
the reign of king James I. The same situation occurred in France where it was a
serious offense to questions the powers of the king, king Louis XIV once
remarked that “I am the state”.
c. Feudal order/ feudalism
Before the rise of democracy, Europe was characterized by
feudal order/feudalism and privileged classes. Feudalism as practiced in the
kingdom of England was a state of human society which was formally structured
and stratified on the basis of land tenure. The land lords were part and parcel
of the government. In France, the ancient regime was characterized by
distinctive classes of the clergy and the nobles.
d. The church and the state were inseparable
There was a strong relationship between the church and the
state in Europe before the rise of democracy. The official faith or religion in
France was supposed to be Catholics. The pop could even influence the decisions
of the kings of France. In Britain, the official faith or religion was
Anglican. All members of the royal family had to be Anglicans.
The English revolution (The glorious revolution) 1640 - 1689
The English revolution refers to series of events in Britain
that led to the collapse of feudalism and destroyed absolutism and serfdom in
Great Britain.
There were series of conflicts in Britain; the commercial
bourgeoisie were determined to destroy feudalism. The bourgeoisie wanted to
make the crown an overall leader of England without the assistance of the
landlords.
Another conflict was the control of the common land because
the monarchy was against the enclosure system. Due to these conflicts, the
democracy was abolished in 1649 but the king was restored as the head of the
state.
The revolution was also characterized with the replacement
of the Roman Catholic king, James II with the protestant one, William III.
There was also the passage of the bill of rights which
included the following;
a. Any English monarchy must be a member of the Anglican
Church.
b. The king has no powers to increase taxes without the
general consent of the parliament.
c. The elections of the members of parliament should be
free.
d. It declared that there should be frequent parliamentary
elections.
Causes of the English revolution
1. Heavy taxation
The merchants were gaining a lot of influence, hence the
king decided to impose heavy taxes on the merchants so as to control their
growing influence. Taxes hindered business activities which forced the
merchants to rise up and overthrow the government.
2. Principle of divine right of the king.
The king argued that he was an absolute and his power could
not be questioned by man. The British people wanted this principle to be
changed because they wanted a king who will be answerable to them.
3. Role of English philosophers.
The English philosophers also contributed to the pot break
of the English. Their writings enlightened the English people about weakness of
old system. John Locke an English philosopher attacked the monarchy as being
autocratic and oppressive in nature. John Locke wanted a king who will be
accountable to the people. These writings partly prompted the English people to
stage a revolution.
4. Role of Oliver Cromwell.
Oliver Cromwell contributed to the outbreak of English
revolution by uniting the people to remove the dictatorial monarchy. He was
protesting against religious discrimination and all forms of dictatorships in
England. Oliver Cromwell even suggested that King Charles has to be
assassinated to pave a way for the establishment of a new government.
5. Enclosure system.
The enclosure system was an agreement reached in parliament
by wealthy landowners to buy small peasants landless consequently the peasants
appealed to the king to stop the process of enclosure. The king tried to stop
the enclosure system but his actions worsened relations between him and the
wealthy.
6. The emergency of classical economists.
The emergence of classical economists played huge role in
the outbreak of the English revolution. Economists such as Adam smith, David
Ricardo and Thomas Malthus advocated private property and individual freedom in
economic life of a society. Their views brought awareness among the people thus
leading to the English evolution.
7. Religious conflicts.
There were religious conflicts in 1531 where king Henry VII
declared himself the king of Church of England, this action drew resistance
from some of the church which led to the rise of a group known as puritans. The
puritans were dissatisfied with the church and decided to separate themselves
from the main stream, the king responded by persecuting them and calling them
enemies. This led to the outbreak of the English revolution.
8. Emergency of commercial bourgeoisie class.
The emergency of a bourgeoisie class contributed to the
outbreak of the English revolution. This class was determined to conduct
business activities in England thus any class of people that tried to hinder
their goals was overthrown. The monarchy had failed to introduce liberal
economic policies that would support capitalism thus the commercial bourgeoisie
joined with the peasants to stage the revolution.
9. Maintenance of discriminative classes.
The maintenance of discriminative classes contributed to the
outbreak of the English revolution. The nobility and the clergy were the most
privileged class. The middle class consisted of professionals and government
officials and the last class consisted of the peasants who were very poor. It
was the peasants who united with the commercial bourgeoisie to stage a
revolution.
The role of English revolution in the rise of capitalism in
England
The English revolution played a great role in the
development of capitalism in England. The effects of the revolution paved way
for the rise of capitalism.
a. Introduction of free trade.
The new government pursued the laissez faire policy whereby
it did not intervene in economic activities. The government allowed the
domestic economy to operate fairly with few controls. The absence of government
interference encouraged the investors to increase production thus leading to
the industrial revolution.
b. Seizure of political power by the merchants.
There was seizure of political power by the merchants; this
was a fundamental change in Britain because before the revolution all political
powers rested in the hands of the king. The merchants played a great role in
abolishing feudalism and introduced capitalism.
c. Unification of England.
The unification of England played a great role in the rise
of capitalism. The coming together of Britain, Wales, Scotland and Ireland
widened the market thus playing a crucial to support the industrial revolution
consequently leading to the rise of capitalism.
d. Abolition of serfdom.
The revolution contributed to the abolition of serfdom and
absolutism, there was introduction of a constitution rights. The abolition of
serfdom created free workers who were needed by capitalist industries thus
leading to the rise of capitalism.
e. Control of the church.
There was confiscation of church land and the church was
separated from the state, this created room for the introduction of liberal
capitalist ideas which supported the rise of capitalism.
f. Land consolidation.
The revolution abolished feudal land tenure system and put
land in the hands of the capitalists who carried out mechanized agriculture
which paved way for the rise of the agrarian revolution. The agrarian
revolution played a great role in the rise of capitalism.
IMPACTS OF THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION
a After the revolution the king became ceremonial title
because the one who was given power to control the government was the prime
minister under the parliamentary government therefore prime minister became the
head of the government and the king became a ceremonial leader.
b Politically the revolution led to the overthrown of the
absolute monarchy and the capitalist formed the republic government based on
parliamentary supremacy controlled by the capitalists.
c The Capitalist who formed parliamentary government
possessed both economic and political power in Britain, this causes changes in
English economy for example it led to abolition of internal taxes, barriers
which led to promote trading activities in England, freedom of farming and
individual enterprises.
d The Royal army and soldiers started to be under the
control of the government established by the capitalists.
e The Government funds started to be controlled and approved
by the parliament; this means that the parliament had power to budget the
government expenditure as it was during monarchy system of the king.
f All the feudalism elements that remained were removed
(dismantled) that is, feudalism as a mode of production collapsed completely
after the English political revolution.
g The Revolution accumulated wealth, through the illegal
ways of accumulating wealth (capital) Primitive accumulation of capital such
as; plundering, looting etc and free competition in production was adopted
which led merchants to start competing each other in production, this was
because of merchants who come into power and who was under the development of
capitalism.
h The revolution caused death; many people were badly
wounded and there was massive destruction of people’s properties like farms,
shops, and workshops.
Contribution of English Revolution to the Rise of Democracy
in Britain
i. It brought multiparty political system, basically in
Greet Britain where Conservative party and Liberal party were enacted. This
give chance to individuals to select the leader of their wishes, hence rise of
democracy.
ii. Emergence of shared government. The English revolution
of 17th C made the emergence of a shared government between common people and
the existing government.
iii. It brought much freedom of worship as they were able to
worship the way they wish in any sect.
iv. Respect of human rights. The English revolution gave
room to the respect of human right as opposed from the farmer fudor monorchies
which demanded the right of human being.
v. The revolution brought realistic constitution. It led to
the country governed by the rule of law, all matters of the state follow the
principle and law of the country.
vi. Freedom of debate and expression. The England political
revolutions played a great role for the rise of democracy in the world. The
parliament was given high states of debating bill, to amend laws etc.
vii. The revolutions spreed ideas of democracy to other
countries such as France.
The French revolution of 1789 – 1799
A revolution is a gradual or sudden change that takes place
in the societies politically, economically and social setup. A revolution
occurs not because people are just interested in changes but their certain
factors on the ground that forces them to stage a revolution.
The French revolution of 1789 marked a turning point in the
political history of France. It destroyed a well established monarchy and
replaced it with a republican government.
Causes of the French revolution
a. Financial crisis.
The financial crisis was the most immediate and paramount
cause of the French revolution. In 1789, the French national treasury ran
bankrupt to the extent of failing to pay workers. The bankrupt was due to the
frequent wars which France fought example the seven years war with Britain
(1756 – 1763) over colonies in India and Canada, and American war of
independence. The bankrupt was also caused by the luxury life at the king’s
palace. This crisis worsened the problems of the French thus contributing to
the revolution.
b. Despotic aristocracy.
The French aristocracy was despotic; all French kings right
from Louis XIV, XV and XVI were despotic kings, whose powers could not be
questioned. They possessed all political powers like making all important
political decisions and policies. There was no written constitution to check
the powers of the king. There was also no written laws to control the actions
of the king, this meant that, the king’s word was the law, example; king Louis
the XVI ones remarked that “something is legal because i wish it” this kind of
despotism made the revolution inevitable by 1789.
c. Character of King Louis XVI.
There was a weak administration in France especially that of
Louis XVI. He was corrupt, inefficient and inconsistent in his policies, that
is he could at times show signs of helping the peasants but shortly thereafter
he withdraws his good intention.
Besides the above the king was under the strong influence of
his wife Marie Antoinette, she was an Austrian princess who was hated by the
French people because she was not ready to help peasants.
d. French class structure.
The maintenance of discriminative classes contributed to the
outbreak of the French revolution. The French population was divided into three
discriminative classes namely the first estate, second estate and third estate.
The first estate consisted of the nobility who enjoyed the highest salaries and
key positions in the government and the military. The second estate comprised of
the clergy (Bishops and Priests). This grouped lived in urban areas and owned
large estates of land and were exempt from paying taxation. The last class
consisted of the peasants who paid all taxes both direct and indirect. The
problems of the third estate forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.
e. Intellectual movements.
These intellectual movements especially those of
philosophers played a significant role in enlightening the French people about
the political and economic crisis in France. They exposed the abuse of power by
the government philosophers such as Voltaire advocated for fair taxation
policies. Montesquieu advocated for separation of power in the government. The
enlightenment of the French people about their political forced them to stage a
revolution in 1789.
f. American war of independence.
The American war of independence led to both economic and
political effects which were exploited by the rich middle class and the
peasants to stage a revolution. Politically this war failed them with a strong
desire for establishment of a democratic and constitutional government.
Economically, the war partially worsened the financial crisis because it was
expensive to maintain soldiers abroad.
g. Economic crisis.
During the 18 th C, France experienced a rapid growth in her
population and yet the agricultural and industrial production remained low thus
leading to food shortage. There was also another problem of unemployment which
affected the living standards of the people. Amidst this growing population and
unemployment, there was also persistent inflation. These severe conditions
forced the French to stage a revolution in 1789.
h. Dismissal of financial controllers.
The dismissal of financial controllers had a role to play in
the outbreak of the French revolution. Turgot and Necker had been appointed by
the king to oversee the economic condition of France, but these were later
dismissed following the advice of the queen. The financial controllers revealed
the heavy cost incurred by the king and his members.
i. The march of the women.
The marching of the women at Versailles demanding bread,
land and equality sparked off the French revolution. Marie Antoinette provoked
the demonstrators by saying that “If you cannot afford bread, go and buy cakes”
this statement made both the king and the queen more unpopular in France.
In conclusion by 1789 there was enough material for
combustion, what was lacking was a spark to see the materials ablaze. People
had enough grievances; all they needed was a leader, thus the mobilization and
organization of the middle class made the revolution.
The effects of the French revolution
a. Elimination of feudalism
The French revolution contributed to the elimination of
feudalism and the consequent rise of capitalism. The new government that was
established after the revolution was abolition of feudalism and introduced
capitalist relations of production, whereby the major means of production were
controlled by the private sectors.
b. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
The French revolution contributed to the rise of Napoleon
Bonaparte to power. It destroyed the discriminative classes that had made it
difficult for anyone in the third estate to rise to power. Following the French
revolution, promotion was based on merit and not birth. Napoleon was able to
display his skills during the revolution which helped him to rise to power.
c. Development of social infrastructure.
After the election of Napoleon Bonaparte, he improved the
social infrastructure system by building more roads and railways and various
financial institutions. These changes played a great role in the rise of
capitalism in France.
d. Introduction of unity.
The French revolution introduced unity in France, whereby
all people were equal before the law. People were free to conduct any type of
business of their choice; this is what contributed to the rise of capitalism.
e. Development of nationalism.
The French revolution inspired the spirit of nationalism
among the French people. The revolution which advocated for equality, fraternity
and liberty became a lesson to the French to fight against absolute monarchies
like that of Louis XVI. These ideas were able to spread beyond the French
borders.
f. Establishment of a republican government.
The French revolution contributed to the destruction of the
bourbon monarchy and put in place a republican government in 1792. This was the
government that played a crucial role in the abolition of feudalism and the
consequent rise of capitalism.
g. Control of the church.
One of the most important changes of the French revolution
was the control of the church. The Bishops were to be paid by the state like
any other civil servants, the church was also not supposed to levy taxes. It
was completely detached from state affairs.
h. Abolition of slave trade.
The French revolution contributed to the abolition of slave
trade in French colonies. The French claimed that slave trade was not in line
with its slogan of the revolution thus it had to be abolished.
The 1848 revolutions in Europe
1848 has been regarded as the year of revolution in Europe.
The revolutions broke out mainly in France and the Austrian empire. There were
mainly directed against the spirit of the Vienna arrangement of 1815. In
France, the 1848 revolutions contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe and
his Orleans monarchy, while in Austria Empire the 1848 revolutions lead to the
downfall of Metternich.
Common features of the 1848 revolutions
a. Reaction against the Vienna settlement.
The 1848 revolutions were opposed to the Vienna settlement
of 1815 thus the revolutions were either nationalists or liberal in nature. In
Germany and Italy states, there was a strong feeling for national unity and
political independence. In France and Hungary, there were strong feelings for
liberal ideas.
b. Urban based revolutions.
The 1848 revolutions were urban centered and with less
impact on the country side. They were common in cities like Paris, Berlin, Rome
and Milan.
c. Lack of mass mobilization.
The 1848 revolutions was started and led by intellectuals
such as university professors, poets, journalists and teachers. The merchant
class also took an active role in organizing the revolutions. The peasants were
not actively involved and perhaps this explains why these revolutions were
short lived.
d. Reaction against the side effects of the industrial
revolution.
The 1848 revolutions erupted in less industrialized
countries of Europe such as France and Austria whose economies were based on
agriculture. The spread of the industrial revolution from Britain led to
various effects which left many people dissatisfied. The workers were exploited
and oppressed through low wages and long working hours.
e. Promotion of the French revolutionary ideals.
The 1848 revolutions promoted the ideals of the French
revolution. There was a lot in common between the 1848 revolutions and the
French revolution. There was formation of national guards to protect the gains
of the revolutions, liberal constitutions were advocated for to protect
peoples’ political liberty.
f. Short lived revolutions.
Most of the 1848 revolutions failed by the end of 1849 to
achieve their desire and goals, they were only partially successful in France
where the Orleans monarchy was forced out of power. The provisional government
that was established was too weak to solve the problems of the French
population.
In the case of Austrian empire, the 1848 revolution in
Piedmont, Hungary and Prussia to a certain extent forced the respective
governments to grant liberal constitutions but by the end of 1849 they were
defeated and the constitutions were withdrawn.
Causes of the 1848 revolutions in Europe
a. Nationalism
Politically there was a strong spirit of nationalism among
the Italians and Germans. They resented foreign domination of Austria and
strongly advocated for national unity and national political independence. The
spirit of nationalism thus contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.
b. Liberal constitutions (liberalism).
The desire for liberalism had grown too strong especially in
France and hungry. People demanded for political reforms of the existing
political systems. They advocated for constitutional governments which by then
were lacking. In France, Louis Philippe had risen to power on the ticket of
preserving constitutional rights of the French people but by 1848 the French
were still denied expansion of franchise (voting rights).
In Hungary, the people demanded for independence and
constitutional parliaments so that their political rights could be protected.
c. Widespread discontent.
The Metternich system had caused a lot of discontent in the
Austrian empire. There was a package of strict regulations introduced by
Metternich to preserve the spirit and arrangement of the Vienna settlement.
Metternich always used force to check the growth of liberalism and nationalism.
In 1819, he introduced the Carls bad law which banned people’s freedom. The
press was concerned, political parties were banned and nationalist leaders were
imprisoned. These conditions forced people to stage the 1848 revolutions.
d. Economic problems.
The spread of the industrial revolution to the Austrian
empire and France had side effects which forced the people to join the 1848
revolutions. The industrial revolution was championed by the capitalists who
wanted to maximize profits by exploiting the workers. There was mass
unemployment, low wages and long working hours. The masses demanded economic
reforms but their respective governments were slow to respond thus they decided
to stage a revolution.
e. Role of the socialists.
The ideas of socialism contributed to the outbreak of the
1848 revolutions in Europe. The socialists mobilized the workers into a strong
force that played an active part in the 1848 revolutions. The workers were
promised better working and living conditions.
f. Natural calamities.
Natural calamities partly sparked off the 1848 revolutions
in France and the Austrian empire between 1846 and 1847, there was general bad
weather in Austrian empire and France which was characterized by heavy rains
which destroyed crops. The poor harvests were followed by severe food
shortages. To make matters worse, there was an outbreak of epidemics such as
typhoid and cholera. These conditions create a good atmosphere for the 1848
revolutions.
g. Chain reaction.
The success of the revolution in France of February 1848
inspired similar revolutions throughout the Austrian empire because of common
existing political, social and economic conditions. Following the revolution in
France, Louis Philippe and his Orleans monarchy was pushed out of power. In
March, the revolution spread to piedmont, Sicily and Prussia. It is from this
point that historians concluded that “whenever France coughs, the rest of
Europe catches cold” the revolution in France provided a practical example to
the already discontented masses in the Austrian empire.
Conclusion
Therefore, it follows from the above that the 1848
revolutions, mainly broke out because of paramount political consideration the
social and economic distress only facilitated the pace of the revolutionary
mood.
Role of the 1848 revolutions in the rise of democracy
a. Establishments of constitutions.
The revolutions took place in 1848 contributed to the rise
of democracy by facilitating the establishment of constitutions. During the
1848 revolutions, people demanded for political reforms of the existing
political systems. They advocated for parliamentary democracy and
constitutional governments which by then were lacking. In France, the Orleans
monarchy was removed from power and constitutional government was established.
b. Demise of feudalism.
The 1848 revolutions contributed to the destruction of
feudalism and serfdom in Europe which contributed to the rise of democracy. The
absolute monarchies were part and parcel of feudalism and serfdom thus creating
a good atmosphere for the rise of democracy.
c. Rise of national consciousness.
1848 revolutions played a crucial role in the rise of
national consciousness (feeling) in Europe which contributed to the rise of
democracy. In German and Italian states, there was a strong national feeling
that aimed at achieving national unity and national political independence.
d. Overthrow of the papacy regimes
The 1848 revolutions played a great role in the overthrow of
the papacy regimes in Italy consequently contributing to the rise of democracy
in Europe. Republican such as Mazzini and Garibaldi contributed significantly
to the unification of Italy which laid a foundation for the establishment of
democracy.
e. Emergency of the capitalist class.
The 1848 revolutions contributed to the rise of democracy in
Europe by destroying feudalism and paving way for the rise of the merchant
class which was very fundamental in the rise of capitalism and democracy in
Europe.
Conclusion
Although the 1848 revolutions generally failed, they
provided important lessons for future nationalists and liberal leaders. They
lead the ground for future dynamic and strong leadership that played a great
role in the Italian and German unification. In case of Italy, they lead to the
rise of count Camilla Carvour and victor Emmanuel II. In case of Germany, there
was the rise of Otto Von Bismarck.
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