TOPIC 3: IMPERIALISM AND TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF THE WORLD
(COLONIZATION OF AFRICA)
IMPERIALISM
Imperialism can be defined as the expansion beyond one’s
border, either by conquest, influence or by both. It involves one going beyond
borders searching for market and raw materials.
TYPES OF CAPITALISM:-
· Commercial capitalism (1500 –1750) or mercantilism
· Competitive / industrial capitalism (1750 – 1875)
· Monopoly / Finance capitalism (1875 - present)
COMMERCIAL CAPITALISM / MERCHANT CAPITALISM:-
During this stage, Europeans closed their borders in search
of precious metals such as gold and silver. The powers were not interested in
the social and economic transformation of the societies they met, they were
only interested in plundering and raiding.
Although this type of capitalism was characterized by
primitive accumulation of capital, it also stimulated the industrial revolution
in Europe.
COMPETITIVE / INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM:-
This type of capitalism was characterized by the mushrooming
of many manufacturing industries that were small in size but competing in the
production and maximization of profit. The main objectives of this type of
capitalism were to:-
(i) Acquire markets for European manufactured goods.
(ii) Procure raw materials.
During the industrial capitalism, there is a bitter struggle
among capitalistic for increasing production levels so as to maximize profits.
In the course of these struggles some capitalists are destroyed while others
grow rich; therefore to survive the capitalists must increase labor
productivity which is done through the introduction of more efficient machines.
Features of competitive industrial capitalism:-
(i) The role of the state is minimal because of the belief
in free trade policy or sometimes called “Laissez faire” policy under free
trade, the production and distribution of goods and services is determined by
the market forces and not the state.
(ii)Most enterprises are small and competitive, they
complete among themselves to increase production and maximize profits.There is
nor Monopoly in the markets or investments.
(iii) Tariff policies are still protective in character that
is they aim at protecting home industries.
(iv) Banks are not controlling production; they are only
agents of payments that are receiving deposits.
(v) Raw materials are important but not crucial, that is the
European powers could do without raw materials from Africa.
Effects of competitive capitalism in Africa:-
(a) Abolition of slave trade.
The European powers abolished slave trade in Africa so as to
get markets where they can sell their manufactured goods and raw materials. The
European powers wanted the market but slaves would not provide them, hence this
necessitated the abolition of slave trade.
(b) Introduction of legitimate trade.
Legitimate trade refers to the type of trade that involved
the buying and selling of natural resources; the European powers introduced
legitimate trade which would make it possible to get raw materials such as palm
oil, rubber and coffee needed by the European powers.
(c) Division of Africa among the European trading companies
that shared Africa amongst them. These companies included British South Africa
company that controlled South Africa, Zimbabwe + Zambia while the imperial
British East Africa company controlled Uganda, Kenya and Zanzibar. These
companies were searching for markets and raw materials that were needed by
their respective government.
(d) Fall and rise of some states.
Competitive industrial capitalism led to the fall some
states in Africa because it involved the abolition of slave trade on which some
states like Dahomey depended on, it also contributed to the rise of states
because African state accumulation a lot of wealth out of the legitimate trade
which was used to build states such as the Kingdom of King Jaja of Opobo.
(e) Influx of foreigners.
It let to the influx of many foreigners, especially
Europeans. These groups of Europeans included Explorers, Missionaries and
traders, who later on paved way for the colonization of Africa by Europe.
MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
Monopoly capitalism was characterized by the predominance of
monopolies. Monopolies were formed to reduce stiff competition in the
production process.
It is subdivided into:-
(a) 1830 - 1947
This was characterized by colonization of territories by
individual countries.
(b) 1947 – present:-
This was characterized by colonization of territories by
more than one country.
Characteristics of Monopoly Capitalism.
Lenin identified five characteristics of monopoly
capitalism:-
a. Concentration and centralization of capital.
Under monopoly capitalism, Production becomes more
concentrated and centralized under one big company.
Monopoles may also set prices very low with objectives of
preventing more industries joining the market, so that they can maintain their
monopoly.
b. Merging of bank capital and industrial capital to form
finance capital.
In their drive for more profit, monopolistic companies did
not confine only on the production of commodities but also invest in the
banking sector. Under monopoly capitalism, bank does not only act as agents of
payments but also control production boards on monopolistic companies such as
British Petroleum (BP) and General Motors’ (GM).
c. Export of capital as opposed to export of commodities.
Under Monopoly capitalism, monopolistic companies dominated
the production and market in their countries but they now cross their borders
to control market and production in other countries hence they turn into
international monopolistic associations. These associations divide the world
among themselves; examples are General motors (GM), British Petroleum (BP) and
Moil Company.
d. Completion of division of the world among the imperialist
powers.
During this stage all countries are drawn in to the orbit of
capitalism. The colonial system became part of the capitalist world economy
whereby the capitalist sought for colonies to satisfy the needs of capitalism.
These needs included market, raw materials, cheap labour and investment areas.
THE RISE OF GERMANY , ITALY AND ITS IMPACT
Nationalism can be defined as the desire to be free from
foreign rule or occupation. European nationalism was a manifestation of the
political will of the Europeans to free themselves from foreign domination and
oppression.
Nationalism in various European countries aimed at uniting
the nations and liberates them from foreign control; this is what led to the
German and Italian unification.
Since 1700, Nationalism became an important force in
international relations; the development of European nationalism was closely
linked with the development of monopoly capitalism. Due to the demands of
monopoly capitalism, three was a need to protect none markets but protecting
the markets meant unification which was achieved through nationalism.
The rise of nationalism occurred along with the development
of a political unit which is called a nation/state.
Factors that contributed to the rise of European nationalism
(a) Development of monopoly capitalism.
Due to the demands of monopoly capitalism, there was a need
to protect home markets but this meant unification which had to be achieved by
getting rid of colonial rule.
(b) Dislike of foreign rule.
The major goal of nationalism was to unite the nations and
free those from foreign rule or dominations, this goal led to the German and
Italian unification that were protesting against French occupation.
(c) Education.
Education exposed the evils of colonial rule, hence
stimulating nationalistic sentiments (feelings). Education made it possible for
people to speak the same language, hence cultivating a strong sense of unity
which facilitated the development of a main state.
(d) Improved communication.
The improvement of communication made it possible for people
to travel from one place to another which cultivated a sense of unity that
contributed to the rise of European nationalism.
THE ITALIAN UNIFICATION 1820 –1870.
The Italian had been subjected to foreign domination's for
many years for example, towards the end of the nineteenth Century; Napoleon invaded
Italy in the famous Italian campaign whereby the Italians were put under French
control.
Following Napoleons’ defeat in 1815, the Italians were again
subjected to Australian domination until 1870 when they regained. The Italian
disliked foreign domination and on the growth of nationalism, different
nationalist movements were organized by different leaders.
(i) In 1820, they formed the carbonari movement which was
mainly an organization of intellectuals.
(ii) In 1831, Givseppe Mazzini founded the young Italy
movement.
There were various stages in the Italian unification in
which different territories were liberated from Austrian control. It should be
noted that the liberation of Rome completed the Italian unification. The
greatest maker of the Italian unification was Count Camillo Cavo.
Obstacles in the Italian unification before 1850
(a) The position of pope and the influence of the Catholic
Church.
The pope could not fight with Austria because it was a major
Catholic state and consequently feared opposition from all Catholics. Without
the support of the pope, the unification of Italy was impossible. The pope
enjoyed international sensitivity from all the Catholics of the world thus
attacking the pope would force ambitious Catholic state to protect the pope.
(b) Military superiority of the Australian.
The Austrian empire had a well trained organized and
equipped army. The Austrians also had a well established spying network on the
other hand; the Italian nationalists were not military strong by 1848. The
carbonari movement and young Italy movement did not have organized armies.
(c) Metternich and the Metternich system.
Metternich had divided Italy into small and different states,
each with its own parliament. The Italians were one nationality but they could
not agree on a single plan because of the political meetings, associations and
freedom of the press were banned. A strong detective system kept Metternich
informed of all those movements that were fighting for independence and they
were consequently controlled.
(d) Economic backwardness of Italy.
Economic backwardness of the Italian states partly hindered
the struggle for independence. The Italians depended largely on subsistence
farming, the level of education were also low. There were also small middle
class to champion a serious revolution against the Austrians. The Italian
economy lacked a strong industrial sector, thus without a sound economic base,
the nationalist movements were frustrated due to financial difficulties.
(e) Lack of a clear and able leadership.
This was a great hindrance in the struggle for independence
before 1849. The Italians lacked ready and determined leadership against
Austrian domination. King Charles Albert of Piedmont would have united the
Italians if he had accepted to lead the revolution in 1848, but he feared
Austrian might and he reluctantly accepted the offer.
(f) Lack of mass mobilization.
Most Italians up to 1849 were not nationally conscious of
the need for unification and independence. The Carbonari movement was simply on
organization of intellectuals, while the young Italian movements tried to use
the youth to appeal to all sections of the masses, thus these movements failed
to win enough support from the masses.
THE GERMAN UNIFICATION 1820 – 1871.
For a long period, German states were victims of foreign
domination, under Napoleon Bonaparte, the German states were grouped together
to form the Rhine confederation, which was put under French control.
After the downfall of Napoleon, the German states were again
grouped together to form the German confederation, which was put under Austrian
control.
Between 1815 and 1848, the forces of nationalism became very
strong and the Germans began demanding for a united and a free Germany, but
with little success because of the following obstacles.
(a) Disunity at the Frankfort parliament.
The members of the parliament lacked a common plan; the
nationalists wanted a united and free Germany, while the liberals wanted a
democratic and a constitutional government. There were also divisions based on
religion, whereby the Catholics wanted Austrian leadership to remain and the
Protestants (Anglicans) wanted a united Republic.
(b) Austrian Military might.
The Austrians had a well trained, equipped and a large army
contrary to the Germans who lacked a strong and an organized army thus without
it, they found it difficult to defeat the Austrians, so as to regain their
independence.
(c) Lack of a sound economy.
German states depended on agriculture as the basis of their
economy. Transport and communication were not yet well developed, hence without
a sound economic base; the Germans could not strengthen their military power
and mobilize the local population against the Austrians.
(d) Lack of able leadership.
The revolution in PRUSSIA lacked a strong and able
leadership against Austria domination. King Fredrick William IV of Prussia
would have led the revolution but he was opposed to liberalism, thus without a
capable and able leadership, the nationalists movements failed to achieve their
objectives by 1849.
(e) Foreign intervention of Russia.
Czar Nicholas I was opposed to liberal movements both in
Russia and its neighbours. He had used the military to crash liberal movements
in Russia.
It was therefore not a surprise that the establishment of a
liberal government in Germans would face opposition from Russia, indeed in
1849; Russia sent her troops to crash liberal movements in Germany.
Despite all their problems, German unification was attained
in 1871 and the German empire was proclaimed at Versailles.
IMPACTS/ EFFECTS OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
1. European nationalism led to the emergence of new states
such as Greece, Belgium, Italy, Germany, etc. This was because these nations
unified themselves in order to be strong and be able to compete with the former
strong nations such as France and Britain, in terms of market, raw materials,
industrialization, military and areas for investment.
2. Led to intensification of national rivalries and
antagonism among European powers. This was because the former big powers which
were France and Britain started to be in antagonism with the newly unified
nations like Germany and Italy in terms of raw materials, areas for investments
and markets.
3. It led to emergence of hostile military alliance which
were the triple alliance and the triple entente of Britain, France and Russia.
4. It led to the disturbance of balance of power in Europe.
The balance of power which was agreed at the Vienna congress in 1815 was upset
by Germany after it had undergo unification because after unification Germany
started to be powerful in terms of military, industrialization, monopolization
of trade, look for market, areas for investment and therefore the power which
was formerly dominated was now disturbed by the newly unified countries.
5.It led to the breakout of the world war i.e. World War I
and World War II; this wars affected world socially, economically and
politically.
6.The Unification led to the rise of the new imperialism in
Europe from 1850’s.
This was because European nationalism accelerated the rise
and development of nationalism in Europe which brought expansionist tendencies
among European powers to go in other parts of the world to expand their
boundaries.
1. It led to the influx of agents of colonialism in Africa
like explorers, missionaries and traders who searched the information about the
potential strategic and navigable rivers of Africa and they sent information to
their countries about the wealth found in African continent.
2. Led to the scramble for African continent; this was
because those agents of colonialism started to explore and search the potential
information about African continent. Example fertile soil for agriculture,
navigable rivers, i.e. Niger delta, Congo basin etc. mining areas and
thereafter their mother nations rushed to Africa to look for those areas.
3. Led to the partition of Africa after the scramble which
was done by European big powers about the potential of African continent;
therefore the partition of Africa was done during the Berlin conference of
November 1884 to February 1885.
4. Led to colonization of Africa in the last quarter of the
19 th C where by the big powers after the scramble for Africa were able to
control Africa in all aspects in order to protect and satisfy European
interests especially for the development of capitalism in Europe.
5. Led to the establishment of colonial state as an
extension of metropolitan rule (colonial rule) in Africa, therefore the work of
colonial state was to make sure that the interest of colonialism like the
establishment of colonial economy such as plantations settlers and peasant
economy, mining, establishment of administration etc. was to be achieved for
the interests of colonialist.
6. It led to the establishment of colonial economy in
African continent which was the work done by colonial state in order to make
sure that European colonialists should continue on the expense of Africans.
7. Led to destruction of African culture by introducing
European culture. Example African culture practices things such as traditions,
customs, norms, dressing styles, eating, marriage, etc. were totally forbidden
and destroyed by Europeans.
8.Led to the outbreak of the world wars i.e. WWI of
1914-1918 and WWII of 1939-1945, these world wars affected Africa in all aspects
of life such as occurrence of deaths, famine, Economic hardship, change of
colonial masters etc.
MANIFESTATIONS OF EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN THE 19 TH CENTURY
Military alliances and the notion of European balance of
power
A. MILITARY ALLIANCES:-
The defeat of France during Franco – Prussian war of 1871
had a tremendous impact in Europe. Before the war, the European powers were Britain
and France but after the war, the new powers were Britain and Germany which
meant that there was a shift in the balance of power.
After the defeat of France, Bismarck directed his efforts to
isolate France in order to maintain her in a weak and defeated position by
farming military alliances.
Bismarck forged military alliances with different European
countries, this included;
(a) The Dual Alliance of 1879.
In 1879, Germany and Austrian –Hungary signed a treaty which
formed a defensive alliance called the “dual Alliance” This alliance was
intended to strengthen and protect Germany from France and at the same time
protect Austria – Hungary against Russia. By 1870, Austria – Hungary was
threatened by Russian Army ships in the Balkan regions and feared that Russia
might attack her.
(b) The Triple Alliance of 1882.
In 1882, Bismarck formed the Triple Alliance which was
intended to be defensive and to completely isolate and weaken France. The
triple alliance came into existence by admitting Italy into the “Dual
Alliance”.
France and Italy had both been interested in Tunisia; Italy
became frustrated and started looking for alliance against France. The Triple
alliance would therefore defend Germany, Austria and Italy.
(c) The Dual Alliance of 1892.
By 1992, both France and Russia felt insecure and they
decided to make a defensive agreement called the Dual Alliance against the
triple alliance of 1882. In this alliance, the two powers agreed to help each
other incase of an attack by Germany.
(d) The Anglo – Japanese Alliance of 1902.
For many years Britain had concentrated on looking after
vast empire and had kept out of European affairs, this policy was known as
splendid isolation. When her colonial rural such as France and Russia combined
to form the dual alliance of 1892; Britain was forced to forge an alliance with
Japan with the objective of protecting her economic interests in the Far East.
(e) The Triple Entente of 1907.
In 1907, Russia was admitted into the “Dual alliance”, which
led to the formation of the Triple Entente, consulting of Britain, Russia and
Japan. These powers agreed to help each other in case of war.
In order to maintain stability in Europe, the European
powers adopted the nation of balance of power.
The causes of militarism and arms race in Europe in the nineteenth Century.
Arms race, refers to the intense competition between nations
to accumulate technologically advanced and military strategic weapon system.
The most prominent instance of such competition was the rapid developed by the
USA and the soviet union of more and better nuclear weapons during the cold
war.
The term arms race its original usage describes a
competition between two or more parties for military supremacy. Each party.
Competes to produce large number of weapons, greater armies or superior
military technology.
Factors for the Arms Race.
Some of the factors for Arms Race in Europe are;
i. The need to maintain balance of power among nations so
that no one nations should military be threat to other.
ii. The cold war that existed between U.S.A and U.S.S.R and
their respective camps.
iii. The developed world war was looking for more influence
and control in the third world countries and other saw armament as a way of
increasing that capacity
iv. Armed race was meant to scare other countries of the
world and make them fear the big powers such as U.S.A and U.S.S.R.
IMPACTS OF THE ARMED RACE
The following are some of the impacts of the armed race
i. Many people lost their lives due to the use of nuclear or
chemical weapons e.g:- Nagasaki and Hiroshima in Japan during the second world
war.
ii. It reduced the level of resources that could have been
utilized in the provision of social and economic welfare of the people in the
super power states and the world countries
iii. It sharpened the hostility between western block under
U.S.A and Eastern Block under U.S.S.R.
iv. The emergence of terrorists. Using various weapons of
mass destruction.
B. THE NOTION OF EUROPEAN BALANCE OF POWER.
This refers to a policy whereby European powers used
military alliances as the determining factor in maintaining stability in
Europe.
The factors that led to the use of this policy:-
(a) Rise of European nationalism.
During this period, colonies were seen as a sign of
prestige. They became a test and proof of a nation’s superiority. This belief
was bound to force the European powers to look for colonies in Europe, thus
disturbing the balance of power.
(b) Development of monopoly capitalism.
The development of capitalism to the monopoly stage had
various demands in Europe. Due to monopoly capitalism, there was need for raw
materials, markets and cheap labour which could only be satisfied through
acquiring colonies. To prevent European countries from searching for colonies
in Europe, the European powers adopted the notion of European balance of power
so as to maintain stability.
(c) Emergence of Germany and Italy.
After Germany and Italy achieved their unification, they
joined the race for colonies to meet the demands of monopoly capitalism. To
maintain stability in Europe, The European powers decided to adopt a notion of
European balance of power.
Due to monopoly capitalism, there was a need for markets,
raw materials and investment areas. Their needs could only be achieved by
acquiring colonies but the European countries were not supposed to look for
colonies inside Europe, thus an outlet had to be created and this led to the
scramble for and partition of Africa.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA
Colonialism refers to the domination or control of one
country by another economically, politically and socially.
Reasons for the colonization of Africa
The development of capitalism in Europe led to the
industrial revolution which started in Britain in 1750 and by the end of eighteenth
Century Britain was the only industrialized nation in the world. However, in
the nineteenth Century, other European countries such as France, Belgium, Germany
and Italy also industrialized.
The industrialization of almost all European countries meant
that there was no where to expand within Europe, hence there was need to find
colonies.
From 1870, monopoly capitalism demanded for the following:-
- Markets
- Raw materials
- Cheap labor
- Investment areas
- Areas to resettle surplus labour force.
Therefore, it was these demands which made capitalism to
change to its monopolistic stage called “imperialism”.
Colonialism was therefore linked with the development of
capitalism in Europe, in the sense that it was undertaken to meet the demands
of monopoly capitalism.
AGENTS OF IMPERIALISM
Before the establishment of colonialism, the capitalist
nations sent colonial agencies to pave way for colonial rule. These agents
included;
- Explorers
- Missionaries
- Traders
Ø How explorers, Missionaries and traders paved way for
establishment of colonial rule in Africa.
(a) They reported about the wealth in Africa which would
enrich the European capitalist countries. The information given by the
Missionaries, Explorers and Traders excited the interests of European countries
to come and seek their fortune in Africa. Dr. Living stone reported that East
Africa had fertile soil and the environment was suitable for European
settlements, given the economic conditions in Europe, such as the need for raw
materials, they had to rush to Africa.
(b) They encouraged African chiefs to sign treaties which
later became justified claims for the occupation of African territories.
Moffat, an Anglican Missionary, encouraged chief Lubengula to sign a treaty
with British, which eventually led to the British colonization of Zimbabwe.
(c) Some of the agents for example Christian missionaries’
brain washed the minds of the Africans through their preaching and teachings.
They softened the minds of the Africans to be God fearing because of the
preaching, devour African Christians believed that Christianity was the
greatest gift from Europe and this was reflected in Nigeria and Buganda where
the Africans welcomed colonization.
(d) The Christian missionaries paved way for the
establishment of the colonies rule because they regarded colonial rule as
necessary for both the spread of Christianity and the abolition of slave trade
in Africa
(e) They chartered companies laid down the initial
infrastructure those later facilitated colonial administration policies. The
roads and railways became a source of reinforcement in terms of troops and
manpower.
(f) They appealed to European government to come and occupy
parts of Africa which they have visited and developed. For example Dr.
Livingstone appealed to Britain to come and occupy central Africa and Britain
responded by colonizing central Africa.
SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA
As capitalism developed stage by stage, it pressed different
demands on Africa. During competitive industrial capitalism, the capitalist
powers advocated for the abolition of slave trade because it was seen as a
necessary for the acquisition of raw materials and markets. When competitive
capitalism changed to monopoly capitalism, the capitalist powers were involved
in a struggle to acquire colonies, a process called “The scramble for Africa.”
The scramble for Africa refers to the way European powers
struggled to acquire colonies in Africa.
Partition of Africa refers to the difference steps taken by
the colonial powers to divide Africainto territories and fixing colonial
boundaries.
The major powers that were involved in this exercise were
Britain, Germany, France and Belgium.
There were two theories that explain the scramble for and
partition of Africa namely:-
A. AFRO-CENTRIC THEORY (Marxist theory)
This theory claimed that the factors that led to the
scramble for and partition of Africa were economic.
(i) The need for monopoly markets.
The need for monopoly markets came due to increase
production of industrial products that lacked enough demands in Europe. To make
matters worse, between 1823 and 1896, the world passed through a stand still
economic depression where by trade came to stand still, prices were law and
profits were small hence the capitalists put a lot of pressure on their
government to acquire colonies for selling the manufactured commodities.
(ii) The need for tropical raw material.
The tropical treasure theory, put forward by Nobson and
Lenin assert that Africa was partitioned because it was highly endowed with a
lot of raw materials for industrial development in Europe hence the European
powers rushed to Africa to acquire colonies that would act as sources of raw
materials.
(iii) The need for cheap labour.
There was a contradiction between the employers and the
workers whereby to maximize profits, the employers had to decrease wages and
intensify exploitation. The workers, however resisted this through trade
unions, they demanded higher wages and good working conditions all of which
reduced the profit of the employers. The solution to this problem was to look
for colonies in Africa where they can get cheap labour.
(iv) The need for investment areas.
Scholars such as Adam Smith claimed that the availability of
excess capital for investments in European countries forced Europe to take part
in the scramble for Africa. The capitalists had accumulated a lot of capital
that they could not invest in Europe because the markets were saturated, to
solve this crisis, they decided to look for colonies where they can invest
their capital and obtain high rates of profits.
(v) The need to resettled surplus labour force.
The industrial revolution and the capitalist system produced
not only surplus capital but also surplus labour force. As more and more
machines came into use, more and more people found themselves out of work, the
solution to this problem was found in the acquisition of colonies where surplus
labor force could be settled.
B: EUROPEAN THEORY:-
This theory claims that political and social factors caused
the scramble for Africa.
(i) Before the Franco – Prussian war 1871, the major European
powers were Britain and France was defeated by Germany and she lost her
territories of Alsace and Lorraine which were rich in coal and iron. The
emergence of Germany changed the balance of power and this forced her to rush
to Africa to acquire colonies. The defeat of France made her to rush to Africa
to acquire colonies as a way of compensating for the loss in Europe.
(ii) Rise of European nationalism.
During the mid nineteenth century, a tide of nationalism was
seeping across Europe, extreme nationalism let to slogans like, “my country
right or wrong” During this period, the possession of an Empire was seen as a
test of nations strength , hence European powers rushed to Africa to acquire
more and more colonies thus causing scramble.
Social factors:-
(i) Need to stop slave trade.
The European powers asserted that, they came to Africa to
acquire colonies because of the need of stopping slave trade. They claimed that
colonial rule was a necessity if slave trade was to be abolished completely in
Africa.
(ii) Need to introduce Western Civilization.
The European powers argued that their civilization had
reached the highest possible standards, thus they had a duty to impose it on
those people who were not civilized, the Africans were believed to be
uncivilized hence they struggled for colonies so as to introduce Western
civilization.
Strategic factors
Strategic factors were also one of the factors that led to
the scramble for and partition of Africa. Britain controlled Uganda because she
wanted to protect the source of river Nile; She controlled Kenya because of the
sea route to India.
Britain and France struggled for Egypt because of the Suez
Canal which shortened the route to India.
The Berlin conference gave international recognition to a
struggle for colonies that had been going on for a long period of time. By the
1880’s the scramble for colonies in Africa had reached serious proportions and
there were dangers that if it was not controlled, a major war may erupt among
the European powers.
To avoid the war, the chancellor of Germany, Otto Van
Bismarck convened an international conference of European powers that had
interests in Africa.
The conference took place between November 1884 and February
1885. The main aim of the conference was to ensure that the scramble for and
partition of Africa takes place peacefully without resulting to a war.
Various European powers attended the conference, these
included Britain, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium. Denmark and the USA
attended as observers.
- Principles of Berlin Conference
During the conference, a number of resolutions were reached
by the European powers.
These included the following;
(a) The principle of effective occupation.
This principle stated that all European powers that had
colonies in Africa had to effectively control their colonies by establishing
infrastructures such as roads and railways. The powers also agreed to maintain
law and order in their colonies.
(b) Notification principles
This principle stated that in the process of colonial
acquisition, the European powers had to notify or inform other powers about
their colonial possessions so as to minimize clashes over the same colonies
because the aim of the conference was to ensure that the scramble and partition
of Africa takes place peacefully.
(c) Fire navigation on the Niger and Congo basins.
The European powers agreed that the Niger and the Congo
basins will be free for navigation by all European powers. This was to avoid
any European power from monopolizing the two water ways which may cause
conflicts.
(d) Abolition of slave trade.
The European powers agreed to stop slave trade in their
colonies and introduce legitimate trade. Legitimate trade would enable the
capitalist powers to acquire markets and raw materials which were the needs of
monopoly capitalism.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULEIN AFRICA
The partition of Africa marked the end of Africans political
independence and the beginning of subjection to foreign rule. In the process of
establishing colonial rule, the Europeans powers used different techniques
depending on the nature and attitude of the native population towards colonial
intrusion.
These techniques included the following:-
(a) Treaty signing.
This was one of the most common techniques used by the Europeans
to establish colonial rule in Africa. This method was used in areas that did
not oppose the establishment of colonial rule. The colonial powers convinced
African local leaders to sign treaties of protection, protecting them against
their local and foreign rivals. It should be noted that these treaties were
used by the colonial powers to control African territories. In Tanganyika Karl
Peters signed treaties with African chiefs which led to German colonization of
Tanganyika.
(b) Use of force.
Sometimes, the colonial powers used the military to
establish colonial rule in Africa. This method was used in areas that resisted
the establishment of colonial rule in East Africa, the Germans used the
military against the Hehe in Tanganyika, and the British used the military
against the Nandi in Kenya and Kabalega of Uganda. The colonial powers used the
military because they were determined to exploit African resources.
(c) Alliances
This method was mainly used in areas where two societies
were in conflictsin situation of enmity, the colonial powers allied with one
society against the other and finally control all of them together. In
Tanganyika the Germans allied with the Sangu and Bena against the Hehe, but
after defeating the Hehe the Germans controlled all of them together. In
central Africa, the British allied with chief Lewanyika of Lozi Kingdom against
Lobengula but when Lobengula was defeated, the British controlled all of them
together.
(d) Gun butt diplomacy.
This is the colonial powers used treaties of force rather
than force itself to force Africans to submit to colonial rule. This method was
used by the German in 1884 to force a Sultan of Zanzibar to submitto Karl
Peters treaty. In 1897, the British used this method to force Jaja of Opobo to
submit to their control.
(e) Mercenary technique.
This was a method whereby the colonial powers used Africans
to fight against other Africans. The Africans, who were used had no blood ties
with those being invaded. In Tanganyika the Germans used the Rugaruga to defeat
their fellow Africans.
AFRICAN REACTION TOWARDS COLONIAL RULE
The imposition of colonial rule in Africa did not go
unchallenged, the Africans reaction to colonial rule was not homogeneous it
varied from one society to another.
The techniques which the Africans used against the colonial
rules establishment included the following:-
(a) Active resistance.
This was a physical African reaction characterized by the
use of arms or violence against the establishment of colonial rule. Sometimes,
active resistances was a spontaneous reaction while in some societies, it
needed long preparations. Active resistance occurred in societies that were
economically strong and capable of staging a strong resistance. This method was
used by the Hehe in Tanganyika against the Germans and the Nandi against the
British in Kenya.
(b) Passive resistance.
This was a form of African reaction against colonial rule
and penetration which did not involve the use of arms or violence but the
colonized people simply refused to cooperate or to have any contacts with the
colonizers. This form of African reaction was due to natural calamities such as
diseases that hindered the Africans to stage an active resistance. The Maasai
people for example are naturally war like people but during the establishment of
colonial rule, they reacted passively because they had been weakened by
Cholera.
(c) Adaptation technique.
This was used where the African ruling class sought
friendship from the colonizers so that they can get arms and new fighting
techniques. It should be noted that these arms and the new fighting tactics,
were used against the same colonizers who gave them the arms. Adaptation
technique was used by King Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia who sought friendship from the
Italians to obtain guns, but he used the same weapons to defeat the Italians in
1895.
THE DEFEAT OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES
Most of the African societies which decided to oppose
colonial rule were defeated by the European powers.
There were various factors that contribute to the defeat of
African resistances.
1. Military weakness of the Africans.
The African societies had inferior weapons compared to the
Europeans; Most of Africans were using spears and arrows and yet the Europeans
were using machine guns. The possession of this powerful weapon contributed to
the defeat of resistances such as that of the Hehe against the Germans in
Tanganyika and the Nandi resistance against the British in Kenya.
2. Lack of national consciousness and unity.
Lack of national consciousness and unity partly contributed
to the defeat of Africans resistances for examples; the Germans easily defeated
the Hehe in Tanganyika because the Sangu and Bena collaborated with the
Germans. The British also defeated Lobengula in Zimbabwe because chief
Lewanyika of the Lozi Kingdom collaboration with the British.
3. Natural hazards
Some African societies were defeated because of their
material conditions which made them unable to put up a stiff resistance. These
conditions were natural hazards such as diseases. The Maasai of East Africa
could not put a stiff resistance because they were suffering from cholera and
their cattle had been killed by render pest.
4. Influence of the Missionaries.
The Missionaries had a role to play in the defeat of African
resistances. The Missionaries brain washed the minds of the Africans by
preaching obedience which reduced African resistance to colonial rule. For
example; the Buganda in Uganda and the Fante in Nigeria never resisted colonial
rule because of the teaching of the Missionaries.
5. Succession disputes.
Succession disputes also contributed to the defeat of
African resistances. Succession disputes brought about divisions which made it
possible for the colonial powers to side with one group against the other in
Buganda, for example, Semei Kakungulu sided with the British to defeat Mwanga.
6. Lack of good fighting techniques.
Lack of good fighting techniques went hand in hand with the
absence of strong leadership which was needed to stage a strong resistance. A
case in point was the Majimaji resistance which lacked adequate leadership and
proper fighting techniques, hence contributing to its defeat by the Germans.
TRANSITION FROM COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM TO MONOPOLY
CAPITALISM
Competitive capitalism refers to the second stage of
capitalism that existed after industrial revolution in Europe in 1750, where by
European nations were competing themselves in Industrial production. This was
done in terms of production of raw materials, monopolizing trade and market.
Therefore under industrial capitalism there rose bitter struggle/stiff
competition among European capitalists for production, whoever in the course of
this stage some capitalist were died while others who were able to compete grow
richer and reached to a stage of monopoly capitalism, hence in order to survive
the capitalists increased labour productivity which was done through
introduction of more efficient machines hence competitive capitalism was always
progressive because of time and free trade and accelerated to the rise of
monopoly capitalism.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM
The following are some of the characteristics of competitive
Capitalism.
1. During this period the role of the state was minimal,
this was because of the belief of free trade, and this sometimes was called
“laissez faire policy”.
2. Most of the enterprises were small and competitive in
nature hence there was no monopoly in market, area for investment, getting
labor and monopoly of getting raw materials because each enterprise was
competing with another to get economic motive.
3. During this period raw materials from Africa were
important but not crucial because raw materials were only needed to be used in
monopoly companies which had started to monopolize the market, areas for
getting labor and raw materials.
4. The tariff policies (trade barriers) were still
protective in nature because each nation was still protecting her home market
in order to allow merchants to involve in trade at home without any competition
from outside merchants.
5. Banks were not controlling production but they were only
the agents of payment where by banks provided capitals, loans and credit to the
merchants to continue involve themselves in trade for development of capitalism
but not these banks but not these bans were involved in production.
6. Competitive capitalism was characterized by the growth of
industries where by industries grew specifically for producing manufactured
goods which were needed and sold by industrial capitalist in Europe (Britain).
FACTORS FOR TRANSITION FROM COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM TO
MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
1. Emergence of monopoly companies that was able to swallow
small companies. Due to emergence of big companies with huge amount of capital,
the small companies could not fit in the competition hence monopolization of
the major economic activities and the decline of competitive capitalism.
2. Export of capital, during this period there emerged big
companies which were exported to industries, banks, and companies. These led
companies to get double profit which accelerated the rise of monopoly
capitalism.
3. Emergence of cut throat competition among the European
countries. The stiff competition led weak companies to be swallowed by the
strongest among European nations. Example Britain, Japan, France, Italy, etc.
Therefore this competition resulted to the strongest to continue in monopoly
stage while the weak died in the competitive capitalism.
4. The division of the world among the big imperialist
nations which was done at the Berlin conference; this accelerated the
colonization of Africa and big capitalist powers were able to get capitalist
demands and be able to maximize profits and establish strong monopolistic
companies which led them to transform from competitive capitalism.
5. Concentration of production and centralization of capital
was another factor for transition from competitive capitalism to monopoly
capitalism. Europeans concentrated in both manufacturing of goods and raw
materials which led to acquisition of more capital which was invested and
reinvested especially in big industries together with big monopolistic
companies which enabled them to acquire more profit for trade circulation and
for more investments in economic sectors hence transformed the form of
capitalism.
6. The rise of philosophical ideas due to high education and
research and this led unit almagation of European companies as a way to
maximize profit. E.g. Small industries which were established during monopoly
capitalism under one merchant was joined together and even the capital from
those companies was joined together form a big finance.
7. The Rise of European nationalism. The unification of
European nations example the unification of Germany and Italy and the rise of
other European nationalism acted as a transition from competitive to monopoly
capitalism because the unification expanded market, labor, easy circulation of
trade and the nations started to compete among themselves y establishing big
companies which all these led to the transition from competitive capitalism to
monopoly capitalism.
8. Relate the subsequent division of the world between
capitalist alliances with the development of monopoly capitalism.
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